Recoverable Errors with Result
Most errors aren’t serious enough to require the program to stop entirely. Sometimes, when a function fails, it’s for a reason that you can easily interpret and respond to. For example, if you try to open a file and that operation fails because the file doesn’t exist, you might want to create the file instead of terminating the process.
Recall from “Handling Potential Failure with the Result
Type” in Chapter 2 that the Result enum is
defined as having two variants, Ok and Err, as follows:
#![allow(unused)] fn main() { enum Result<T, E> { Ok(T), Err(E), } }
The T and E are generic type parameters: we’ll discuss generics in more
detail in Chapter 10. What you need to know right now is that T represents
the type of the value that will be returned in a success case within the Ok
variant, and E represents the type of the error that will be returned in a
failure case within the Err variant. Because Result has these generic type
parameters, we can use the Result type and the functions that the standard
library has defined on it in many different situations where the successful
value and error value we want to return may differ.
Let’s call a function that returns a Result value because the function could
fail. In Listing 9-3 we try to open a file.
Filename: src/main.rs
use std::fs::File; fn main() { let f = File::open("hello.txt"); }
Listing 9-3: Opening a file
How do we know File::open returns a Result? We could look at the standard
library API documentation, or we could ask
the compiler! If we give f a type annotation that we know is not the return
type of the function and then try to compile the code, the compiler will tell
us that the types don’t match. The error message will then tell us what the
type of f is. Let’s try it! We know that the return type of File::open
isn’t of type u32, so let’s change the let f statement to this:
use std::fs::File;
fn main() {
let f: u32 = File::open("hello.txt");
}
Attempting to compile now gives us the following output:
$ cargo run
Compiling error-handling v0.1.0 (file:///projects/error-handling)
error[E0308]: mismatched types
--> src/main.rs:4:18
|
4 | let f: u32 = File::open("hello.txt");
| --- ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ expected `u32`, found enum `Result`
| |
| expected due to this
|
= note: expected type `u32`
found enum `Result<File, std::io::Error>`
For more information about this error, try `rustc --explain E0308`.
error: could not compile `error-handling` due to previous error
This tells us the return type of the File::open function is a Result<T, E>.
The generic parameter T has been filled in here with the type of the success
value, std::fs::File, which is a file handle. The type of E used in the
error value is std::io::Error.
This return type means the call to File::open might succeed and return a file
handle that we can read from or write to. The function call also might fail:
for example, the file might not exist, or we might not have permission to
access the file. The File::open function needs to have a way to tell us
whether it succeeded or failed and at the same time give us either the file
handle or error information. This information is exactly what the Result enum
conveys.
In the case where File::open succeeds, the value in the variable f will be
an instance of Ok that contains a file handle. In the case where it fails,
the value in f will be an instance of Err that contains more information
about the kind of error that happened.
We need to add to the code in Listing 9-3 to take different actions depending
on the value File::open returns. Listing 9-4 shows one way to handle the
Result using a basic tool, the match expression that we discussed in
Chapter 6.
Filename: src/main.rs
use std::fs::File; fn main() { let f = File::open("hello.txt"); let f = match f { Ok(file) => file, Err(error) => panic!("Problem opening the file: {:?}", error), }; }
Listing 9-4: Using a match expression to handle the
Result variants that might be returned
Note that, like the Option enum, the Result enum and its variants have been
brought into scope by the prelude, so we don’t need to specify Result::
before the Ok and Err variants in the match arms.
Here we tell Rust that when the result is Ok, return the inner file value
out of the Ok variant, and we then assign that file handle value to the
variable f. After the match, we can use the file handle for reading or
writing.
The other arm of the match handles the case where we get an Err value from
File::open. In this example, we’ve chosen to call the panic! macro. If
there’s no file named hello.txt in our current directory and we run this
code, we’ll see the following output from the panic! macro:
$ cargo run
Compiling error-handling v0.1.0 (file:///projects/error-handling)
Finished dev [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.73s
Running `target/debug/error-handling`
thread 'main' panicked at 'Problem opening the file: Os { code: 2, kind: NotFound, message: "No such file or directory" }', src/main.rs:8:23
note: run with `RUST_BACKTRACE=1` environment variable to display a backtrace
As usual, this output tells us exactly what has gone wrong.
Matching on Different Errors
The code in Listing 9-4 will panic! no matter why File::open failed. What
we want to do instead is take different actions for different failure reasons:
if File::open failed because the file doesn’t exist, we want to create the
file and return the handle to the new file. If File::open failed for any
other reason—for example, because we didn’t have permission to open the file—we
still want the code to panic! in the same way as it did in Listing 9-4. Look
at Listing 9-5, which adds an inner match expression.
Filename: src/main.rs
use std::fs::File;
use std::io::ErrorKind;
fn main() {
let f = File::open("hello.txt");
let f = match f {
Ok(file) => file,
Err(error) => match error.kind() {
ErrorKind::NotFound => match File::create("hello.txt") {
Ok(fc) => fc,
Err(e) => panic!("Problem creating the file: {:?}", e),
},
other_error => {
panic!("Problem opening the file: {:?}", other_error)
}
},
};
}
Listing 9-5: Handling different kinds of errors in different ways
The type of the value that File::open returns inside the Err variant is
io::Error, which is a struct provided by the standard library. This struct
has a method kind that we can call to get an io::ErrorKind value. The enum
io::ErrorKind is provided by the standard library and has variants
representing the different kinds of errors that might result from an io
operation. The variant we want to use is ErrorKind::NotFound, which indicates
the file we’re trying to open doesn’t exist yet. So we match on f, but we
also have an inner match on error.kind().
The condition we want to check in the inner match is whether the value returned
by error.kind() is the NotFound variant of the ErrorKind enum. If it is,
we try to create the file with File::create. However, because File::create
could also fail, we need a second arm in the inner match expression. When the
file can’t be created, a different error message is printed. The second arm of
the outer match stays the same, so the program panics on any error besides
the missing file error.
That’s a lot of match! The match expression is very useful but also very
much a primitive. In Chapter 13, you’ll learn about closures; the Result<T, E> type has many methods that accept a closure and are implemented using
match expressions. Using those methods will make your code more concise. A
more seasoned Rustacean might write this code instead of Listing 9-5:
use std::fs::File;
use std::io::ErrorKind;
fn main() {
let f = File::open("hello.txt").unwrap_or_else(|error| {
if error.kind() == ErrorKind::NotFound {
File::create("hello.txt").unwrap_or_else(|error| {
panic!("Problem creating the file: {:?}", error);
})
} else {
panic!("Problem opening the file: {:?}", error);
}
});
}
Although this code has the same behavior as Listing 9-5, it doesn’t contain any
match expressions and is cleaner to read. Come back to this example after
you’ve read Chapter 13, and look up the unwrap_or_else method in the standard
library documentation. Many more of these methods can clean up huge nested
match expressions when you’re dealing with errors.
Shortcuts for Panic on Error: unwrap and expect
Using match works well enough, but it can be a bit verbose and doesn’t always
communicate intent well. The Result<T, E> type has many helper methods
defined on it to do various tasks. One of those methods, called unwrap, is a
shortcut method that is implemented just like the match expression we wrote in
Listing 9-4. If the Result value is the Ok variant, unwrap will return
the value inside the Ok. If the Result is the Err variant, unwrap will
call the panic! macro for us. Here is an example of unwrap in action:
Filename: src/main.rs
use std::fs::File; fn main() { let f = File::open("hello.txt").unwrap(); }
If we run this code without a hello.txt file, we’ll see an error message from
the panic! call that the unwrap method makes:
thread 'main' panicked at 'called `Result::unwrap()` on an `Err` value: Error {
repr: Os { code: 2, message: "No such file or directory" } }',
src/libcore/result.rs:906:4
Another method, expect, which is similar to unwrap, lets us also choose the
panic! error message. Using expect instead of unwrap and providing good
error messages can convey your intent and make tracking down the source of a
panic easier. The syntax of expect looks like this:
Filename: src/main.rs
use std::fs::File; fn main() { let f = File::open("hello.txt").expect("Failed to open hello.txt"); }
We use expect in the same way as unwrap: to return the file handle or call
the panic! macro. The error message used by expect in its call to panic!
will be the parameter that we pass to expect, rather than the default
panic! message that unwrap uses. Here’s what it looks like:
thread 'main' panicked at 'Failed to open hello.txt: Error { repr: Os { code:
2, message: "No such file or directory" } }', src/libcore/result.rs:906:4
Because this error message starts with the text we specified, Failed to open hello.txt, it will be easier to find where in the code this error message is
coming from. If we use unwrap in multiple places, it can take more time to
figure out exactly which unwrap is causing the panic because all unwrap
calls that panic print the same message.
Propagating Errors
When you’re writing a function whose implementation calls something that might fail, instead of handling the error within this function, you can return the error to the calling code so that it can decide what to do. This is known as propagating the error and gives more control to the calling code, where there might be more information or logic that dictates how the error should be handled than what you have available in the context of your code.
For example, Listing 9-6 shows a function that reads a username from a file. If the file doesn’t exist or can’t be read, this function will return those errors to the code that called this function.
Filename: src/main.rs
#![allow(unused)] fn main() { use std::fs::File; use std::io::{self, Read}; fn read_username_from_file() -> Result<String, io::Error> { let f = File::open("hello.txt"); let mut f = match f { Ok(file) => file, Err(e) => return Err(e), }; let mut s = String::new(); match f.read_to_string(&mut s) { Ok(_) => Ok(s), Err(e) => Err(e), } } }
Listing 9-6: A function that returns errors to the
calling code using match
This function can be written in a much shorter way, but we’re going to start by
doing a lot of it manually in order to explore error handling; at the end,
we’ll show the shorter way. Let’s look at the return type of the function first:
Result<String, io::Error>. This means the function is returning a value of
the type Result<T, E> where the generic parameter T has been filled in
with the concrete type String and the generic type E has been filled in
with the concrete type io::Error. If this function succeeds without any
problems, the code that calls this function will receive an Ok value that
holds a String—the username that this function read from the file. If this
function encounters any problems, the code that calls this function will
receive an Err value that holds an instance of io::Error that contains
more information about what the problems were. We chose io::Error as the
return type of this function because that happens to be the type of the error
value returned from both of the operations we’re calling in this function’s
body that might fail: the File::open function and the read_to_string
method.
The body of the function starts by calling the File::open function. Then we
handle the Result value with a match similar to the match in Listing 9-4.
If File::open succeeds, the file handle in the pattern variable file
becomes the value in the mutable variable f and the function continues. In
the Err case, instead of calling panic!, we use the return keyword to
return early out of the function entirely and pass the error value from
File::open, now in the pattern variable e, back to the calling code as this
function’s error value.
So if we have a file handle in f, the function then creates a new String in
variable s and calls the read_to_string method on the file handle in f to
read the contents of the file into s. The read_to_string method also
returns a Result because it might fail, even though File::open succeeded.
So we need another match to handle that Result: if read_to_string
succeeds, then our function has succeeded, and we return the username from the
file that’s now in s wrapped in an Ok. If read_to_string fails, we return
the error value in the same way that we returned the error value in the match
that handled the return value of File::open. However, we don’t need to
explicitly say return, because this is the last expression in the function.
The code that calls this code will then handle getting either an Ok value
that contains a username or an Err value that contains an io::Error. We
don’t know what the calling code will do with those values. If the calling code
gets an Err value, it could call panic! and crash the program, use a
default username, or look up the username from somewhere other than a file, for
example. We don’t have enough information on what the calling code is actually
trying to do, so we propagate all the success or error information upward for
it to handle appropriately.
This pattern of propagating errors is so common in Rust that Rust provides the
question mark operator ? to make this easier.
A Shortcut for Propagating Errors: the ? Operator
Listing 9-7 shows an implementation of read_username_from_file that has the
same functionality as it had in Listing 9-6, but this implementation uses the
? operator.
Filename: src/main.rs
#![allow(unused)] fn main() { use std::fs::File; use std::io; use std::io::Read; fn read_username_from_file() -> Result<String, io::Error> { let mut f = File::open("hello.txt")?; let mut s = String::new(); f.read_to_string(&mut s)?; Ok(s) } }
Listing 9-7: A function that returns errors to the
calling code using the ? operator
The ? placed after a Result value is defined to work in almost the same way
as the match expressions we defined to handle the Result values in Listing
9-6. If the value of the Result is an Ok, the value inside the Ok will
get returned from this expression, and the program will continue. If the value
is an Err, the Err will be returned from the whole function as if we had
used the return keyword so the error value gets propagated to the calling
code.
There is a difference between what the match expression from Listing 9-6 does
and what the ? operator does: error values that have the ? operator called
on them go through the from function, defined in the From trait in the
standard library, which is used to convert errors from one type into another.
When the ? operator calls the from function, the error type received is
converted into the error type defined in the return type of the current
function. This is useful when a function returns one error type to represent
all the ways a function might fail, even if parts might fail for many different
reasons. As long as there’s an impl From<OtherError> for ReturnedError to
define the conversion in the trait’s from function, the ? operator takes
care of calling the from function automatically.
In the context of Listing 9-7, the ? at the end of the File::open call will
return the value inside an Ok to the variable f. If an error occurs, the
? operator will return early out of the whole function and give any Err
value to the calling code. The same thing applies to the ? at the end of the
read_to_string call.
The ? operator eliminates a lot of boilerplate and makes this function’s
implementation simpler. We could even shorten this code further by chaining
method calls immediately after the ?, as shown in Listing 9-8.
Filename: src/main.rs
#![allow(unused)] fn main() { use std::fs::File; use std::io; use std::io::Read; fn read_username_from_file() -> Result<String, io::Error> { let mut s = String::new(); File::open("hello.txt")?.read_to_string(&mut s)?; Ok(s) } }
Listing 9-8: Chaining method calls after the ?
operator
We’ve moved the creation of the new String in s to the beginning of the
function; that part hasn’t changed. Instead of creating a variable f, we’ve
chained the call to read_to_string directly onto the result of
File::open("hello.txt")?. We still have a ? at the end of the
read_to_string call, and we still return an Ok value containing the
username in s when both File::open and read_to_string succeed rather than
returning errors. The functionality is again the same as in Listing 9-6 and
Listing 9-7; this is just a different, more ergonomic way to write it.
Speaking of different ways to write this function, Listing 9-9 shows that there’s a way to make this even shorter.
Filename: src/main.rs
#![allow(unused)] fn main() { use std::fs; use std::io; fn read_username_from_file() -> Result<String, io::Error> { fs::read_to_string("hello.txt") } }
Listing 9-9: Using fs::read_to_string instead of
opening and then reading the file
Reading a file into a string is a fairly common operation, so Rust provides the
convenient fs::read_to_string function that opens the file, creates a new
String, reads the contents of the file, puts the contents into that String,
and returns it. Of course, using fs::read_to_string doesn’t give us the
opportunity to explain all the error handling, so we did it the longer way
first.
Where The ? Operator Can Be Used
The ? operator can only be used in functions that have a return type
compatible with the value the ? is used on. This is because the ? operator
is defined to perform an early return of a value out of the function, in the
same manner as the match expression we defined in Listing 9-6 did. In Listing
9-6, the match was using a Result value, and the early return arm returned
an Err(e) value. The return type of the function has to be a Result to be
compatible with this return.
In Listing 9-10, let’s look at the error we’ll get if we use the ? operator
in a main function with a return type of ():
use std::fs::File;
fn main() {
let f = File::open("hello.txt")?;
}
Listing 9-10: Attempting to use the ? in the main
function that returns () won’t compile
This code opens a file, which might fail. The ? operator follows the Result
value returned by File::open, but this main function has the return type of
(), not Result. When we compile this code, we get the following error
message:
$ cargo run
Compiling error-handling v0.1.0 (file:///projects/error-handling)
error[E0277]: the `?` operator can only be used in a function that returns `Result` or `Option` (or another type that implements `FromResidual`)
--> src/main.rs:4:36
|
3 | / fn main() {
4 | | let f = File::open("hello.txt")?;
| | ^ cannot use the `?` operator in a function that returns `()`
5 | | }
| |_- this function should return `Result` or `Option` to accept `?`
|
= help: the trait `FromResidual<Result<Infallible, std::io::Error>>` is not implemented for `()`
note: required by `from_residual`
For more information about this error, try `rustc --explain E0277`.
error: could not compile `error-handling` due to previous error
This error points out that we’re only allowed to use the ? operator in a
function that returns Result, Option, or another type that implements
FromResidual. To fix this error, you have two choices. One technique is to
change the return type of your function to be Result<T, E> if you have no
restrictions preventing that. The other technique is to use a match or one of
the Result<T, E> methods to handle the Result<T, E> in whatever way is
appropriate.
The error message also mentioned that ? can be used with Option<T> values
as well. As with using ? on Result, you can only use ? on Option in a
function that returns an Option. The behavior of the ? operator when called
on an Option<T> is similar to its behavior when called on a Result<T, E>:
if the value is None, the None will be returned early from the function at
that point. If the value is Some, the value inside the Some is the
resulting value of the expression and the function continues. Listing 9-11 has
an example of a function that finds the last character of the first line in the
given text:
fn last_char_of_first_line(text: &str) -> Option<char> { text.lines().next()?.chars().last() } fn main() { assert_eq!( last_char_of_first_line("Hello, world\nHow are you today?"), Some('d') ); assert_eq!(last_char_of_first_line(""), None); assert_eq!(last_char_of_first_line("\nhi"), None); }
Listing 9-11: Using the ? operator on an Option<T>
value
This function returns Option<char> because it might find a character at this
position, or there might be no character there. This code takes the text
string slice argument and calls the lines method on it, which returns an
iterator over the lines in the string. Because this function wants to examine
the first line, it calls next on the iterator to get the first value from the
iterator. If text is the empty string, this call to next will return
None, and here we can use ? to stop and return None from
last_char_of_first_line if that is the case. If text is not the empty
string, next will return a Some value containing a string slice of the
first line in text.
The ? extracts the string slice, and we can call chars on that string slice
to get an iterator of the characters in this string slice. We’re interested in
the last character in this first line, so we call last to return the last
item in the iterator over the characters. This is an Option because the first
line might be the empty string, if text starts with a blank line but has
characters on other lines, as in "\nhi". However, if there is a last
character on the first line, it will be returned in the Some variant. The ?
operator in the middle gives us a concise way to express this logic, and this
function can be implemented in one line. If we couldn’t use the ? operator on
Option, we’d have to implement this logic using more method calls or a
match expression.
Note that you can use the ? operator on a Result in a function that returns
Result, and you can use the ? operator on an Option in a function that
returns Option, but you can’t mix and match. The ? operator won’t
automatically convert a Result to an Option or vice versa; in those cases,
there are methods like the ok method on Result or the ok_or method on
Option that will do the conversion explicitly.
So far, all the main functions we’ve used return (). The main function is
special because it’s the entry and exit point of executable programs, and there
are restrictions on what its return type can be for the programs to behave as
expected. Executables written in C return integers when they exit, and Rust
executables follow this convention as well: programs that exit successfully
return the integer 0, and programs that error return some integer other than
0. When main returns (), Rust executables will return 0 if main
returns and a nonzero value if the program panics before reaching the end of
main.
Another return type main can have is Result<(), E>. Listing 9-12 has the
code from Listing 9-10 but we’ve changed the return type of main to be
Result<(), Box<dyn Error>> and added a return value Ok(()) to the end. This
code will now compile:
use std::error::Error;
use std::fs::File;
fn main() -> Result<(), Box<dyn Error>> {
let f = File::open("hello.txt")?;
Ok(())
}
Listing 9-12: Changing main to return Result<(), E>
allows the use of the ? operator on Result values
The Box<dyn Error> type is called a trait object, which we’ll talk about in
the “Using Trait Objects that Allow for Values of Different
Types” section in Chapter 17. For now, you can
read Box<dyn Error> to mean “any kind of error.” Using ? on a Result
value in a main function with this return type is allowed, because now an
Err value can be returned early. When a main function returns a Result<(), E>, the executable will exit with a value of 0 if main returns Ok(())
and will exit with a nonzero value if main returns an Err value.
The types that main may return are those that implement the
std::process::Termination trait. As of this
writing, the Termination trait is an unstable feature only available in
Nightly Rust, so you can’t yet implement it for your own types in Stable Rust,
but you might be able to someday!
Now that we’ve discussed the details of calling panic! or returning Result,
let’s return to the topic of how to decide which is appropriate to use in which
cases.